Development and Validation of Willingness to Communicate, Language Use, and Motivation Questionnaires
PDF

Keywords

language use
Willingness to communicate (WTC)
motivational orientations
validity
reliability

How to Cite

Ubaid, U. U., Rethinasamy, S. ., & Ramanair, J. (2021). Development and Validation of Willingness to Communicate, Language Use, and Motivation Questionnaires. Issues in Language Studies, 10(1), 20–36. https://doi.org/10.33736/ils.2763.2021

Abstract

The main goal of modern second language (L2) pedagogy is to engender appropriate communication skills among its learners. Hence, willingness to communicate (WTC) in L2 emerged as an important variable in recent years. Several factors have been found to influence students’ L2 WTC directly or indirectly. For this purpose, many scales and questionnaires have been developed so far to examine the factors influencing WTC among L2 students. However, a comprehensive questionnaire on WTC inside ESL classroom is still lacking. Likewise, WTC in relation to language use and motivational orientations in a single study has yet to be investigated. Thus, this study was aimed to develop and validate questionnaires on WTC, language use and motivational orientations. For this purpose, a five-phase model was used.  After an extensive literature review, questionnaires on WTC, language use and motivational orientations were framed. Operational definitions of the three constructs were established and the items of the questionnaires were finalised. Two experts in the field of applied linguistics determined the content validity of the questionnaires. At the end, the questionnaires were piloted on 50 undergraduates and 10 ESL teachers. The results revealed that all the instruments were valid and highly reliable.

https://doi.org/10.33736/ils.2763.2021
PDF

References

Ali, M. (2017). Investigating Pakistani university students' level of willingness to communicate (WTC) in English as a foreign language: A case study of students from the Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur, Sindh (SALU) [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Northumbria University.

Ali, M. M., Khizar, N. U., Yaqub, H., Afzaal, J., & Shahid, A. (2020). Investigating Speaking Skills Problems of Pakistani Learners in ESL Context. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 9(4), 62-70.

https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.9n.4p.62

Al-Ta'ani, M. H. (2018). Integrative and instrumental motivations for learning English as a university requirement among undergraduate students at Al-Jazeera University, Dubai. International Journal of Learning and Development, 8(4), 89-105.

https://doi.org/10.5296/ijld.v8i4.13940

Anjum, U., Khan, Q., & Gulzar, A. (2016). Translation, cultural adaptation and cross language validation of domains of language use patterns. Journal of Asian Civilizations, 39(2), 1-25.

Asmali, M. (2016). Willingness to communicate of foreign language learners in Turkish context. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 232, 188-195.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.044

Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2000). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language learning, 50(2), 311-341.

https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00119

Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). The role of gender and immersion in communication and second language orientations. Language learning, 53(S1), 65-96.

https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.00224

Brown, F. G. (1983). Principles of educational and psychological testing. Wadsworth Pub Co.

Bukhari, S. F., Cheng, X., & Khan, S. A. (2015). Willingness to Communicate in English as a Second Language: A Case Study of Pakistani Undergraduates. Journal of Education and Practice, 6(29), 39-44.

Cao, Y. (2014). A sociocognitive perspective on second language classroom willingness to communicate. TESOL Quarterly, 48(4), 789-814.

https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.155

Cao, Y., & Philp, J. (2006). Interactional context and willingness to communicate: A comparison of behavior in whole class, group and dyadic interaction. System, 34(4), 480-493.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2006.05.002

Carmines, E. G., & Zeller, R. A. (1979). Reliability and validity assessment. Sage Publications.

https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412985642

Cetinkaya, Y. B. (2005). Turkish college students'willingness to communicate in English as a foreign language [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation] Columbus: Ohio State University.

Connelly, L. M. (2008). Pilot studies. Medsurg Nursing, 17(6), 411-412.

Davis, L. L. (1992). Instrument review: Getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5(4), 194-197.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4

de Saint Léger, D., & Storch, N. (2009). Learners' perceptions and attitudes: Implications for willingness to communicate in an L2 classroom. System, 37(2), 269-285.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.01.001

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum.

https://doi.org/10.1075/aila.19.05dor

Gable, R. K., & Wolf, M. B. (2012). Instrument development in the affective domain: Measuring attitudes and values in corporate and school settings (Vol. 36). Springer Science & Business Media.

Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. Edward Arnold.

Gardner, R. C. (2004). Attitude/motivation test battery: International AMTB research project. The University of Western Ontario. http://hyxy.nankai.edu.cn/jingpinke/buchongyuedu/Motivation%20measurement-AMTB.pdf

Gay, L., Mills, G., & Airasian, P. (2011). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications (10th ed.). Pearson.

George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). Reliability analysis. SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Allyn & Bacon.

Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the 21st century. British Council.

Hashimoto, Y. (2002). Motivation and willingness to communicate as predictors of reported L2 use: The Japanese ESL context. Second Language Studies, 20(2), 29-70.

Hill, R. (1998). What sample size is "enough" in internet survey research? Interpersonal Computing and Technology: An Electronic Journal for the 21st century, 6(3-4), 1-12.

Hinton, P. R., Brownlow, C., McMurray, I., Cozens, B. (2004) SPSS Explained. Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203642597

Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation: A collection of principles, methods, and strategies useful in the planning, design, and evaluation of studies in education and the behavioral sciences (3 ed.). EdITS.

Islam, M., Lamb, M., & Chambers, G. (2013). The L2 motivational self system and national interest: A Pakistani perspective. System, 41(2), 231-244.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2013.01.025

Jenkins, J. (2007). English as a lingua franca: Attitude and identity. Oxford University Press.

Johanson, G. A., & Brooks, G. P. (2010). Initial scale development: Sample size for pilot studies. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 70(3), 394-400.

https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164409355692

Kachru, Y., & Nelson, C. L. (2006). World Englishes in Asian contexts. Hong Kong University Press.

Khatib, M., & Nourzadeh, S. (2014). Development and validation of an instructional willingness to communicate questionnaire. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 36(3), 266-283.

https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2014.914523

Kim, S. J. (2004). Exploring willingness to communicate (WTC) in English among Korean EFL (English as a foreign language) students in Korea: WTC as a predictor of success in second language acquisition [Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation] Columbus: Ohio State University.

Kraemer, H. C., Mintz, J., Noda, A., Tinklenberg, J., & Yesavage, J. A. (2006). Caution regarding the use of pilot studies to guide power calculations for study proposals. Archives of general psychiatry, 63(5), 484-489.

https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.5.484

Lantolf, J. (2000). Second language learning as a mediated process. Language Teaching, 33(2), 79-96.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444800015329

Leo, A. R., & Abdullah, A. N. (2013). Language choice and use of Malaysian Tamil Christian youths: A survey. Frontiers of Language and Teaching, 4, 149-166.

Machin, D., Campbell, M. J., Tan, S. B., & Tan, S. H. (2018). Sample sizes for clinical, laboratory and epidemiology studies. (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118874905

MacIntyre, P. D. (1994). Variables underlying willingness to communicate: A causal analysis. Communication Research Reports, 11(2), 135-142.

https://doi.org/10.1080/08824099409359951

MacIntyre, P. D., & Doucette, J. (2010). Willingness to communicate and action control. System, 38(2), 161-171.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.013

MacIntyre, P. D., Babin, P. A., & Clément, R. (1999). Willingness to communicate: Antecedents & consequences. Communication Quarterly, 47(2), 215-229.

https://doi.org/10.1080/01463379909370135

MacIntyre, P. D., Burns, C., & Jessome, A. (2011). Ambivalence about communicating in a second language: A qualitative study of French immersion students' willingness to communicate. The Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 81-96.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2010.01141.x

MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545-562.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x

Maclntyre, P. D., Baker, S. C., Clement, R., & Donovan, L. A. (2003). Sex and age effects on willingness to communicate, anxiety, perceived competence, and L2 motivation among junior high school French immersion students. Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 53(S1), 137-166.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00226

Maclntyre, P., Baker, S., Clément, R., & Conrod, S. (2001). Willingness to communicate, social support, and language-learning orientations of immersion students. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(3), 369-388.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263101003035

Mahdi, D. A. (2014). Willingness to communicate in English: A case study of EFL students at King Khalid University. English Language Teaching, 7(7), 17-25.

https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n7p17

McCroskey, J. C., & Baer, J. E. (1985, November). Willingness to communicate and its measurement. [Paper presentation]. Speech Communication Association Convention, Denver, CO.

Meerah, T. S. M., Osman, K., Zakaria, E., Ikhsan, Z. H., Krish, P., Lian, D. K. C., & Mahmod, D. (2012). Developing an instrument to measure research skills. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 60, 630-636.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.09.434

Moser, C., & Kalton, G. (1985). Survey methods in social investigation. Gower.

Muftah, M., & Rafik-Galea, S. (2013). Language learning motivation among Malaysian pre-university students. English Language Teaching, 6(3), 92-103.

https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n3p92

Mystkowska-Wiertelak, A. (2018). Fluctuations in willingness to communicate during a semester: A case study. The Language Learning Journal, 1, 1-12.

https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2018.1469660

Nikitina, L., Mohd, D. Z., & Cheong, S. L. (2016). Construction and validation of a questionnaire on language learning motivation. Zbornik Instituta za pedagoska istrazivanja, 48(2), 284-300.

https://doi.org/10.2298/ZIPI1602284N

Nofal, M. Y., & Dweik, B. S. (2011). The language situation among the Indians of Yemen: A sociolinguistic study [Unpublished master's thesis]. Middle East University.

Nosheen, S. S., Javed, M., & Akhtar, H. (2020). Analyzing Strategies for Developing Students Speaking Skills in Public Universities of Pakistan. Global Regional Review, 1, 92-99.

https://doi.org/10.31703/grr.2020(V-I).12

Pamuk, S., Ergun, M., Cakir, R., Yilmaz, H. B., & Ayas, C. (2015). Exploring relationships among TPACK components and development of the TPACK instrument. Education and Information Technologies, 20(2), 241-263.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-013-9278-4

Panhwar, A. H., Baloch, S., & Khan, S. (2017). Making communicative language teaching work in Pakistan. International Journal of English Linguistics, 7(3), 226-234.

https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n3p226

Peng, J. (2013). The challenge of measuring willingness to communicate in EFL contexts. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 22(3), 281-290.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-012-0053-x

Peng, J. E., & Woodrow, L. J. L. l. (2010). Willingness to communicate in English: A model in the Chinese EFL classroom context. Language Learning: A Journal of Research in Language Studies, 60(4), 834-876.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00576.x

Qawar, H. A. (2014). Language choice and language use in an Arab Canadian multilingual community (Quebec-Canada): A sociolinguistic study. [Unpublished master's thesis]. Middle East University.

Rassool, N. (2013). The political economy of English language and development: English vs. national and local languages in developing countries. In E. J. Earling & P. Seargeant (Eds.), English and development: Policy, pedagogy and globalization, (pp. 45-68). Multilingual Matters.

https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847699473-006

Riasati, M. J., & Rahimi, F. (2018). Situational and individual factors engendering willingness to speak English in foreign language classrooms. Cogent Education, 5(1), 1-15.

https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1513313

Robinson, J. (2010). Triandis' theory of interpersonal behaviour in understanding software piracy behaviour in the South African context. [Unpublished master's thesis]. University of the Witwatersrand Johannesburg.

Shamim, F. (2011). English as the language for development in Pakistan: Issues, challenges and possible solutions. Dreams and realities: Developing countries and the English language, 14(1), 291-310.

Syed, H. A. S. (2016). Dynamics of variables underlying willingness to communicate (WTC) in English (L2): A case study of postgraduate business students at a university classroom in Sukkur, Pakistan [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of York.

Taherdoost, H. (2016). Validity and reliability of the research instrument; how to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research. How to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research (August 10, 2016).

https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205040

Tamim, T. (2014). The politics of languages in education: issues of access, social participation and inequality in the multilingual context of Pakistan. British Educational Research Journal, 40(2), 280-299.

https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3041

Taherdoost, H. (2016). Validity and reliability of the research instrument; how to test the validation of a questionnaire/survey in a research. International Journal of Academic Research in Management, 5(3), 28-36.

https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3205040

Vaezi, Z. (2008). Language learning motivation among Iranian undergraduate students. World Applied Sciences Journal, 5(1), 54-61.

Weaver, C. (2005). Using the Rasch model to develop a measure of second language learners' willingness to communicate within a language classroom. Journal of Applied Measurement, 6(4), 396-415.

Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54-66.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136

Yashima, T., Zenuk‐Nishide, L., & Shimizu, K. (2004). The influence of attitudes and affect on willingness to communicate and second language communication. Language Learning, 54(1), 119-152.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2004.00250.x

Zikmund, W. G., Babin, B., Carr, J., & Griffin, M. (2003). Business research methods (7th ed.). Thompson Learning.

Copyright Transfer Statement for Journal

1) In signing this statement, the author(s) grant UNIMAS Publisher an exclusive license to publish their original research papers. The author(s) also grant UNIMAS Publisher permission to reproduce, recreate, translate, extract or summarize, and to distribute and display in any forms, formats, and media. The author(s) can reuse their papers in their future printed work without first requiring permission from UNIMAS Publisher, provided that the author(s) acknowledge and reference publication in the Journal.

2) For open access articles, the author(s) agree that their articles published under UNIMAS Publisher are distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-SA (Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, for non-commercial purposes, provided the original work of the author(s) is properly cited.

3) For subscription articles, the author(s) agree that UNIMAS Publisher holds copyright, or an exclusive license to publish. Readers or users may view, download, print, and copy the content, for academic purposes, subject to the following conditions of use: (a) any reuse of materials is subject to permission from UNIMAS Publisher; (b) archived materials may only be used for academic research; (c) archived materials may not be used for commercial purposes, which include but not limited to monetary compensation by means of sale, resale, license, transfer of copyright, loan, etc.; and (d) archived materials may not be re-published in any part, either in print or online.

4) The author(s) is/are responsible to ensure his or her or their submitted work is original and does not infringe any existing copyright, trademark, patent, statutory right, or propriety right of others. Corresponding author(s) has (have) obtained permission from all co-authors prior to submission to the journal. Upon submission of the manuscript, the author(s) agree that no similar work has been or will be submitted or published elsewhere in any language. If submitted manuscript includes materials from others, the authors have obtained the permission from the copyright owners.

5) In signing this statement, the author(s) declare(s) that the researches in which they have conducted are in compliance with the current laws of the respective country and UNIMAS Journal Publication Ethics Policy. Any experimentation or research involving human or the use of animal samples must obtain approval from Human or Animal Ethics Committee in their respective institutions. The author(s) agree and understand that UNIMAS Publisher is not responsible for any compensational claims or failure caused by the author(s) in fulfilling the above-mentioned requirements. The author(s) must accept the responsibility for releasing their materials upon request by Chief Editor or UNIMAS Publisher.

6) The author(s) should have participated sufficiently in the work and ensured the appropriateness of the content of the article. The author(s) should also agree that he or she has no commercial attachments (e.g. patent or license arrangement, equity interest, consultancies, etc.) that might pose any conflict of interest with the submitted manuscript. The author(s) also agree to make any relevant materials and data available upon request by the editor or UNIMAS Publisher.