Gender Discrimination in the Absence of Discrimination Laws: Evidence from Malaysia
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33736/ijbs.4856.2022Keywords:
Gender, discrimination, job, field experiments, MalaysiaAbstract
This study aims to estimate gender discrimination in the labour market by using fictitious job applicants, carrying gender identifiable names at the top of the curriculum vitae. Fictitious job applications were sent to genuine vacancies in Malaysia. An audit experiment was conducted on new graduate employment in a labour market with no legislation against discrimination. We recorded if there was a significant difference in call-back interview rates. We estimated the extra amount of applications females would need to make to obtain the same number of interview calls as males. Results show a female bias in call-backs was evident only in broader markets that traditionally offer female employment.
References
Ahmed, A., & Hammarstedt, M. (2008). Discrimination in the rental housing market: A field experiment on the internet. Journal of Urban Economics, 64(2), 362-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2008.02.004
Altonji, J. G., & Pierret, C. R. (2001). Employer learning and statistical discrimination. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(1), 313-350. https://doi.org/10.1162/003355301556329
Arceo-Gomez, E. O., & Campos-Vasquez, R. M. (2014). Race and marriage in the labor market: A discrimination correspondence study in a developing country. American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 104(5), 376-380. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.5.376
Arrow, K. (1973). The theory of discrimination. In O. Ashenfelter & A. Rees (Eds.), Discrimination in labor markets (pp. 3-33). Princeton University Press.
Bagues, M., Sylos-Labini, M., & Zinovyeva, N. (2017). Does the gender composition of scientific committees matter? American Economic Review, 107(4), 1207-1238. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20151211
Becker, G. S. (1957). The Economics of Discrimination. University of Chicago Press.
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. American Economic Review, 94(4), 991-1013. https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828042002561
Booth, A. L., & Leigh, A. (2010). Do employers discriminate by gender? A field experiment in female dominated occupations. Economics Letters, 107(2), 236-238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.034
Booth, A. L., Leigh, A., & Varganova, E. (2012). Does ethnic discrimination vary across minority groups? Evidence from a field experiment. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 74(4), 547-573. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00664.x
Carlsson, M., & Rooth, D. O. (2007). Evidence of ethnic discrimination in the Swedish labour market using experimental data. Labour Economics, 14(4), 716-729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2007.05.001
Carpusor, A. G., & Loges, W. E. (2006). Rental discrimination and ethnicity in names. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(4), 934-952. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00050.x
CEIC. (2021). Global economic database, 2008-2018 [Time series]. https://www.ceicdata.com/
Ch'ng, K. S., & Narayanan, S. (2021). The effect of gender and creativity on beauty premium on hiring decisions in Malaysia: Do male and female hirers weigh them differently. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2021.1940694
Chapman, B., & Harding, J. (1985). Sex differences in earnings: An analysis of Malaysian wage data. Journal of Development Studies, 21(3), 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388508421948
Darolia, R., Koedel, C., Martorell, P., Wilson, K., & Francisco, P. A. (2015). Race and gender effects on employer interest in job applicants: New evidence from a resume field experiment. Applied Economics Letters, 23(12), 853-856. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2015.1114571
Deming, D., & Kahn, L. B. (2018). Skill requirements across firms and labor markets: Evidence from job postings for professionals. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(S1), S337-S369. https://doi.org/10.1086/694106
Deng, W., Li, D., & Zhou, D. (2019). Beauty and job accessibility: New evidence from a field experiment. Journal of Population Economics, 33(4), 1303-1341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00148-019-00744-7
Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2019). Statistics on women empowerment in selected domains, Malaysia, 2019 [Data file]. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=444&bul_id=QlliTUxPQnhrR2tVa2kyOFpkWmhaZz09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2021). Statistics on women empowerment in selected domains, Malaysia, 2021 [Data file]. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cthemeByCat&cat=444&bul_id=eHMrcHQ4V1Irc0lRN0ZwM09TWDJvQT09&menu_id=L0pheU43NWJwRWVSZklWdzQ4TlhUUT09
Department of Statistics Malaysia. (Various issues). Labour Force Survey Report. https://www.dos m.gov.my/v1/index.php
Ewens, M., Tomlin, B., & Wang, L. C. (2014). Statistical discrimination or prejudice? A large sample field experiment. Review of Economics and Statistics, 96(1), 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00365
Feltovich, N., & Papageorgiou, C. (2004). An experimental study of statistical discrimination by employers. Southern Economic Journal, 70(4), 837-849. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2325-8012.2004.tb00607.x
Fernandez, J. L. (2009). Intra-occupational gender earnings gaps in Malaysia. Jurnal Kemanusiaan, 14, 20-36.
Hansen, J. A., & Tummers, L. (2020). A systematic review of field experiments in public administration. Public Administration Review, 80(6), 921-931. https://doi.org/10.1111/puar.13181
Heckman, J., & Siegelman, P. (1993). The urban institute audit studies: Their methods and findings. In M. Fix, & R. J. Struyk (Eds.), Clear and convincing evidence: Measurement of discrimination in America (pp. 187-258). Urban Institute Press.
Ismail, R., Farhadi, M., & Wye, C.K. (2017). Occupational segregation and gender wage differentials: Evidence from Malaysia. Asian Economic Journal, 31(4), 381-401. https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12136
Jowell, R., & Prescott-Clarke, P. (1970). Racial discrimination and white-collar workers in Britain. Race, 11, 397-417. https://doi.org/10.1177/030639687001100401
Kaur, A. (2000). Working on the global conveyor belt: Women workers in industrializing Malaysia. Asian Studies Review, 24(2), 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/10357820008713270
Kessler, J. B., Low, C., & Sullivan, C. D. (2019). Incentivized resume rating: Eliciting employer preferences without deception. American Economic Review, 109(11), 3713-3744. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20181714
Khazanah Research Institute (2018). The State of Households 2018: Different Realities. http://www.krinstitute.org/assets/contentMS/img/template/editor/FullReport_KRI_SOH_2018.pdf
Khun, P., & Shen, K. (2013). Gender discrimination in job ads: Evidence from China. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 128(1), 287-336. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjs046
Kroft, K., Lange, F., & Notowidigdo, M. J. (2013). Duration dependence and labor market conditions: Evidence from a field experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 128(3), 1123-1167. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt015
Lazear, E. P., Shaw, K. L., & Stanton, C. T. (2018). Who gets hired? The importance of competition among applicants. Journal of Labor Economics, 36(S1), S133-S181. https://doi.org/10.1086/694908
Lee, M. K. (2018, March 1). The drive to double Malaysia's accountancy profession by 2020. Accounting Business. https://www.accaglobal.com/sg/en/member/member/accounting-b usiness/2018/03/practice/malaysia-2020.html
Lim, H. P. (2017, March 3). Malaysia facing acute shortage of accountants. The Borneo Post. https://www.theborneopost.com/2017/03/03/malaysia-facing-acute-shortage-of-accountan ts-wong/
Mellström, U. (2009). The intersection of gender, race and cultural boundaries, or why is computer science in Malaysia dominated by women? Social Studies of Science, 39(6), 885-907. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306312709334636
Menon, S. (2021, May 9). More policies needed to overcome unemployment among young M'sian women. The Star. https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2021/05/09/interactive-more-policies-needed-to-overcome-unemployment-among-young-m039sian-women
Milanovic, B. (2006). Inequality and determinants of earnings in Malaysia, 1984-1997. Asian Economic Journal, 20(2), 191-216. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8381.2006.00230.x
Ministry of Education Malaysia. (2018). Quick facts, Malaysia educational statistics [Data set]. https://www.moe.gov.my/en/muat-turun/laporan-dan-statistik/quick-facts-malaysia-educ ation-statistics.
Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia. (Various issues). Statistics of higher education of Malaysia [Data set]. https://www.mohe.gov.my/en/download/statistics
Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia. (2010). Malaysia standard classification of occupations 2008 (MASCO) (3rd ed.). Ministry of Human Resources Malaysia.
Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development. (2007). Measuring and monitoring gender equality: Malaysia's gender gap index. www.undp.org/content/dam/malaysia/doc s/WomenE/MGGI_report.pdf
Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development. (2019). Beijing declaration and platform for action. Malaysia progress report 2014-2019. https://asiapacificgender.org/sit es/default/files/documents/Malaysia%20(English).pdf
Mobius, M. M., & Rosenblat, T. S. (2006). Why beauty matters. American Economic Review, 96(1), 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1257/000282806776157515
Narayanan, S., & Selvanathan, B. (2017). Challenges of women empowerment in a private organization in Malaysia. International Journal for Studies on Children, Women, Elderly and Disabled, 1, 90-96.
Neilson, W., & Ying, S. (2016). From taste-based to statistical discrimination. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 129(C), 116-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2016.06.001
Ng, C., & Chee, H. L. (1996). Women in Malaysia: Present struggles and future directions. Asian Journal of Women's Studies, 2(1), 192-210. https://doi.org/10.1080/12259276.1996.11665782
Nor, M. L. (2000). Occupational sex segregation and discrimination in Peninsular Malaysia. Jurnal Pengurusan, 19, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.17576/pengurusan-2000-19-06
Nunley, J. M., Pugh, A., Romero, N., & Seals, R. A. (2017). The effects of unemployment and underemployment on employment opportunities: Results from a correspondence audit of the labor market for college graduates. ILR Review, 70(3), 642-669. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793916654686
Page, M. (1995). Racial and ethnic discrimination in urban housing markets: Evidence from a recent audit study. Journal of Urban Economics, 38(2), 183-206. https://doi.org/10.1006/juec.1995.1028
Paola, M. D., & Scoppa, V. (2015). Gender discrimination and evaluators' gender: Evidence from Italian academia. Economica, 82(325), 162-188. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12107
Paola, M. D., Ponzo, M., & Scoppa, V. (2017). Gender differences in the propensity to apply for promotion: Evidence from the Italian scientific qualification. Oxford Economic Papers, 69(4), 986-1009. https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpx023
Poon W. C. (2015). Malaysian Economy (3rd ed.). SJ Learning.
Poon W. C., & Leeves, D. G. (2017). Is there gender gap unequivocally? Evidence from research output 1958-2008. Scientometrics, 111(3), 1687-1701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-017-2327-9
Poon W. C., Yap, A. K. H., & Lee, T. H. (2013). The outcome of politically connected boards on commercial bank performance in Malaysia. Modern Applied Science, 7(1), 35-50. https://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v7n1p35
Rachagan, S., Marshall, S., Poon W. C., & Satkunasingam, E. (2015). Board diversity - Lessons from Malaysia. International Journal of Corporate Governance, 6(2-4), 194-216. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJCG.2015.074691
Raman, A. (2021). Predicaments in business ventures encountered by women entrepreneurs in Malaysia. International Journal of Economics and Business Administration, 2, 464-473. https://doi.org/10.35808/ijeba/714
Riach, P., & Rich, J. (1991). Testing for racial discrimination in the labour market. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 15(3), 239-256.
Riach, P., & Rich, J. (2006). An experimental investigation of sexual discrimination in hiring in the English labor market. BE Press Advances in Economic Analysis and Policy, 5(2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.2202/1538-0637.1416
Spence, M. (1973). Job market signalling. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 88, 355-374. https://doi.org/10.2307/1882010
Stiglitz, J.E. (1975). The theory of "screening," education, and the distribution of income. American Economic Review, 65(3), 283-300.
Tholen, G. (2020). Degree power: Educational credentialism within three skilled occupations. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 41(3), 283-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2019.1690427
Yong, J. T. (2017). The gender gap in Malaysian public universities: Examining the "Lost Boys". Journal of International and Comparative Education, 6(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.14425/JICE.2017.6.1.0116
Yoong, M. (2020). Gender inequalities in the Malaysian workplace. Professional Discourses, Gender and Identity in Women's Media, 24, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55544-3_1
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright Transfer Statement for Journal
1) In signing this statement, the author(s) grant UNIMAS Publisher an exclusive license to publish their original research papers. The author(s) also grant UNIMAS Publisher permission to reproduce, recreate, translate, extract or summarize, and to distribute and display in any forms, formats, and media. The author(s) can reuse their papers in their future printed work without first requiring permission from UNIMAS Publisher, provided that the author(s) acknowledge and reference publication in the Journal.
2) For open access articles, the author(s) agree that their articles published under UNIMAS Publisher are distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-SA (Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, for non-commercial purposes, provided the original work of the author(s) is properly cited.
3) For subscription articles, the author(s) agree that UNIMAS Publisher holds copyright, or an exclusive license to publish. Readers or users may view, download, print, and copy the content, for academic purposes, subject to the following conditions of use: (a) any reuse of materials is subject to permission from UNIMAS Publisher; (b) archived materials may only be used for academic research; (c) archived materials may not be used for commercial purposes, which include but not limited to monetary compensation by means of sale, resale, license, transfer of copyright, loan, etc.; and (d) archived materials may not be re-published in any part, either in print or online.
4) The author(s) is/are responsible to ensure his or her or their submitted work is original and does not infringe any existing copyright, trademark, patent, statutory right, or propriety right of others. Corresponding author(s) has (have) obtained permission from all co-authors prior to submission to the journal. Upon submission of the manuscript, the author(s) agree that no similar work has been or will be submitted or published elsewhere in any language. If submitted manuscript includes materials from others, the authors have obtained the permission from the copyright owners.
5) In signing this statement, the author(s) declare(s) that the researches in which they have conducted are in compliance with the current laws of the respective country and UNIMAS Journal Publication Ethics Policy. Any experimentation or research involving human or the use of animal samples must obtain approval from Human or Animal Ethics Committee in their respective institutions. The author(s) agree and understand that UNIMAS Publisher is not responsible for any compensational claims or failure caused by the author(s) in fulfilling the above-mentioned requirements. The author(s) must accept the responsibility for releasing their materials upon request by Chief Editor or UNIMAS Publisher.
6) The author(s) should have participated sufficiently in the work and ensured the appropriateness of the content of the article. The author(s) should also agree that he or she has no commercial attachments (e.g. patent or license arrangement, equity interest, consultancies, etc.) that might pose any conflict of interest with the submitted manuscript. The author(s) also agree to make any relevant materials and data available upon request by the editor or UNIMAS Publisher.
