Spatial Variability of Humification Degree in Tropical Peat of Oil Palm Plantations and Forests
Keywords:
atomic ratio, elemental compositions, functional group characteristics, van Krevelen diagramAbstract
The productivity of crops largely depends on the peat’s degree of humification and the amount of fertilizer applied. Significant variability in oil palm growth within plantations suggests potential heterogeneity in peat humification at the local scale. However, the spatial variability of peat humification has not been previously demonstrated. This study aimed to compare the degree of peat humification between oil palm plantations and forests in East and West Malaysia, and to map its spatial distribution across the two ecosystems. The research was conducted in one-hectare plots divided into 20 m × 20 m subplots at Sebungan Oil Palm Plantation and Sabaju Secondary Forest in East Malaysia, and Amanah Saham Pahang Oil Palm Plantation and Pekan Forest Reserve in West Malaysia. The findings revealed that forest peat had a significantly lower C/N ratio than plantation peat, suggesting higher nitrogen accumulation relative to carbon. However, the C/N ratio did not correlate with spectroscopic humification indices, which indicated a higher degree of humification in plantation peat. This suggests that direct comparison of C/N ratios between forest and plantation peat may be inappropriate due to differences in nitrogen cycling. Mapping of the humification degree demonstrated some degree of spatial variability. The weak correlation between humification degree and soil moisture indicates that other factors, particularly those related to plantation management, may also influence peat humification.
References
Ariffin, M.R., Ahmed, O.H., Md Isa, I. & Khairuddin, M.N. (2019). Effects of moisture level on nitrogen availability in tropical peat soil cultivated with oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.). Journal of Agricultural Science, 41 (1): 166–174. DOI: 10.17503/agrivita.v41i1.2007.
Awang, A.H., Rela, I.Z., Abas, A., Johari, M.A., Marzuki, M.E., Mohd Faudzi, M.N.R. & Musa, A. (2021). Peat land oil palm farmers’ direct and indirect benefits from good agricultural practices. Sustainability, 13 (14). DOI: 10.3390/su131478 43.
Beer, J., Lee, K., Whiticar, M. & Blodau, C. (2008). Geochemical controls on anaerobic organic matter decomposition in a northern peatland. Limnology and Oceanography, 53, 1393–1407. DOI:10.2307/40058261.
Biester, H., Knorr, K.H., Schellekens, J., Basler, A. & Hermanns, Y.M. (2014). Comparison of different methods to determine the degree of peat decomposition in peat bogs. Biogeosciences, 11, 2691–2707. DOI: 10.5194/bg-11-2691-2014.
Campos, J.R.D.R., Silva, A.C., Fernandes, J.S.C., Ferreira, M.M. & Silva, D.V. (2011). Water retention in a peatland with organic matter in different decomposition stages. Revista Brasileira de Ciencia do Solo, 35 (4): 1217–1228. DOI: 10.1590/S0100-0683201100040001.
Canellas, L.P. & Façanha, A.R. (2004). Chemical nature of soil humified fractions and their bioactivity. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 39: 233–240. DOI:10.1590/S0100-204X2004000 300005.
Ch’ng, H.Y., Nik Majid, N.M., Ahmed, O.H. & Jalloh, M.B. (2009). Effects of converting secondary forest on peat to oil palm plantation on carbon sequestration. American Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 4 (2): 123–130. DOI:10.3844/ajabssp.2009.123.130.
Cook, S., Whelan, M.J., Evans, C.D., Gauci, V., Peacock, M., Garnett, M.H., Kho, L.K., Teh, Y.A. & Page, S.E. (2018). Fluvial organic carbon fluxes from oil palm plantations on tropical peatland. Biogeosciences, 15: 7435–7450. DOI: 10.5194/bg-15-7435-2018.
Espenberg, M., Truu, M., Mander, U., Kasak, K., Nolvak, H., Ligi, T., Ookaup, K., Madison, M. & Truu, J. (2018). Differences in microbial community structure and nitrogen cycling in natural and drained tropical peatland soil. Scientific Reports, 8: 1–11. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23032-y.
European Commission. (2021). Land use sector. Climate Action. https://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/land-use-sector_en.
Farnham, R. S. & Finney, H. R. (1965). Classification and properties of organic soils. Advances in Agronomy, 17: 115–162. DOI: 10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60413-7.
Goel, P. & Dhingra, M. (2021). Humic substances: Prospects for use in agriculture and medicine. In Abdelhadi, M. (Ed.), Humic Substances. IntechOpen. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.99651.
Holmgren, A. & Norden, B. (1988). Characterization of peat samples by diffuse reflectance FT-IR spectroscopy. Applied Spectroscopy, 42 (2): 255–262. DOI: 10.1366/0003702884428284
Ide, J., Ohashi, M., Takahashi, K., Sugiyama, Y., Piirainen, S., Kortelainen, P., Fujitake, N., Yamase, K., Ohte, N. & Moritani, M. (2017). Spatial variations in the molecular diversity of dissolved organic matter in water moving through a boreal forest in eastern Finland. Science Reports, 7: 1–13. DOI: 10.1038/srep42102.
Jakusné Sári, S. & Forró, E. (2008). Relationships between humification and productivity in peat-based and peat-free growing media. Horticultural Science, 35 (2): 45–49. DOI: 10.17221/638-HORTSCI.
Jauhiainen, J., Silvennoinen, H., Hämäläinen, R., Limin, S., Raison, R.J. & Vasander, H. (2012). Nitrous oxide fluxes from tropical peat with different disturbance history and management. Biogeosciences, 9: 1337–1350. DOI: 10.5194/bg-9-1337-2012.
Jong, F.S., Watanabe, A., Hirabyashi, D., Matsuda, S., Purwanto, B.H., Kakuda, K. & Ando, H. (2006). The growth performance of sago palms (Metroxylon sagu, Rottb.) on peat of different depth and soil water table. Sago Palm, 14 (2): 59–64. DOI: 10.57418/sagopalm.14.2_59.
Kaila, A. (1956). Determination of the degree of humification in peat samples. Agricultural and Food Science, 28 (1): l8–35. DOI: 10.23986/afsci.71402.
Kivinen, E. (1933). Suokasvien ja niiden kasvualustan kasvin ravintoaine suhteista. Acta Agriculturae Fenniae, 27.
Klavins, M. & Purmalis, O. (2013). Properties and structure of raised bog peat humic acids. Journal of Molecular Structure, 1050: 103–113. DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2013.07.021.
Könönen, M., Jauhiainen, J., Laiho, R., Kusin, K. & Vasander, H. (2015). Physical and chemical properties of tropical peat under stabilised land uses. Mires and Peat, 16 (8): 1–13. DOI: 10.19189 /001c.128547.
Könönen, M., Jauhiainen, J., Laiho, R., Spetz, P., Kusin, K., Limin, S. & Vasander, H. (2016). Land use increases the recalcitrance of tropical peat. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 24 (6): 71–731. DOI: 10.1007/s11273-016-9498-7.
Könönen, M., Jauhiainen, J., Strakova, P., Heinonsalo, J., Kusin, K., Limin, S. & Vasander, H. (2018). Deforested and drained tropical peatland sites show poorer peat substrate quality and lower microbial biomass activity than unmanaged swamp forest. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 123: 229–241. DOI: 10.1016/j.so ilbio.2018.04.028.
Kuhn, K.M. & Maurice, P.A. (2014). Accessibility of humic-associated Fe to a microbial siderophore: Implications for bioavailability. Environmental Science & Technology, 48: 1015–1022. DOI: 10.1021/es404186v.
Kulikova, N.A. & Perminova, I.V. (2021). Interactions between humic substances and microorganisms and their implications for nature-like bioremediation technologies. Molecules, 26: 1–32. DOI: 10.3390/molecules26092706.
Large, D.J. & Marshall, C. (2015). Use of carbon accumulation rates to estimate the duration of coal seams and the influence of atmospheric dust deposition on coal composition. In: Smith, D.G., Bailey, R.J., Burgess, P.M. & Fraser, A.J. (eds.). Strata and time: Probing the gaps in our understanding. London, Geological Society, Special Publications. pp. 404. DOI: 10.1144/SP404.15.
Leifeld, J., Klein, K. & Wüst-Galley, C. (2020). Soil organic matter stoichiometry as indicator for peatland degradation. Scientific Reports, 10. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64275-y.
Lewis, K., Rumpang, E., Kho, L.K., McCalmont, J., Teh, Y.A., Gallego-Sala, A. & Hill, T.C. (2020). An assessment of oil palm plantation aboveground biomass stocks on tropical peat using destructive and non-destructive methods. Scientific Reports, 10. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58982-9.
Liu, Z.N., Yu, X.Y., Jia, L.F., Wang, Y.S., Song, Y.C. & Meng, H.D. (2021). The influence of distance weight on the inverse distance weighted method for ore-grade estimation. Scientific Reports, 11. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-82227-y.
Lazicki, P., Geisseler, D. & Lloyd, M. (2020). Nitrogen mineralization from organic amendments is variable but predictable. Journal of Environmental Quality, 2020 (49): 483–495. DOI: 10.1002/jeq2.20030.
Lourenco, M., Fitchett, J.M. & Woodborne, S. (2023). Peat definitions: A critical review. Progress in Physical Geography, 47 (4): 506–520. DOI: 10.1177/03091333221118353.
Malaysian Palm Oil Board. (2006). Environmental Impact Assessment for the Proposed SOP Sebungan & Lavang OPEs, Bintulu Division. Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Danum Jaya Sdn Bhd., Bintulu, Malaysia.
Malaysian Palm Oil Board. (2016). Soils of Ladang ASPA Sungei Miang & Pekan Forest Reserve (Compartment 75). Malaysian Palm Oil Board, Mukim Bebar, Daerah Pekan, Pahang Darul Makmur, Malaysia.
Manning, F.C., Kho, L.K., Hill, T.C., Cornulier, T. & Teh, Y.A. (2019). Carbon emissions from oil palm plantations on peat soil. Frontiers for Global Change, 2 (37). DOI: 10.3389/ffgc.2019.00037.
Minasny, B., Adetsu, D.V., Aitkenhead, M., Artz, R.R.E., Baggaley, N., Barthelmes, A., Beucher, A., Caron, J., Conchedda, G., Connolly, J., Deragon, R., Evans, C., Fadnes, K., Fiantis, D., Gagkas, Z., Gilet, L., Gimona, A., Glatzel, S., Greve, M.H., Habib, W., Hergoualc'h, K., Hermansen, C., Kidd, D.B., Koganti, T., Kopansky, D., Large, D.J., Larmola, T., Lilly, A., Liu, H., Marcus, M., Middleton, M., Morrison, K., Petersen, R.J., Quaife, T., Rochefort, L., Rudiyanto, Toca, L., Tubiello, F.N., Weber, P.L., Weldon, S., Widyatmanti, W., Williamson, J. & Zak, D. (2024). Mapping and monitoring peatland conditions from global to field scale. Biogeochemistry, 167: 383–425. DOI: 10.1007/s10533-023-01084-1.
Moore, T.R., Large, D., Talbot, J., Wang, M. & Riley, J.L. (2018). The stoichiometry of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in peat. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 123: 3101–3110. DOI: 10.1029/2018JG004574.
Muniandy, M., Ahmed, O.H., Nik Majid, N.M. & Yusop, M.K. (2009). Effects of converting secondary forest to oil palm plantation on peat soil carbon and nitrogen and other soil chemical properties. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5 (3): 406–412. DOI:10.3844/ajessp.2009.406.412.
Ngau, L.D., Sim, S.F., Kho, L.K., Rumpang, E., Vasander, H., Jauhiainen, J., Yrjälä, K. & Silvennoinen, H. (2022). Mapping peat soil moisture under oil palm plantation and tropical forest peat in Sarawak. Mires and Peat, 28 (13). DOI:10.19189/MaP.2022.OMB.StA.2370.
Niemeyer, J., Chen, Y. & Bollag, J.M. (1992). Characterization of humic acids, composts, and peat by diffuse reflectance fourier transform infrared-spectroscopy. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 56 (1): 135–140. DOI: 0.21 36/sssaj1992.03615995005600010021x.
Nikonova, L., Kurganova, I., Lopes de Gerenyu, V., Rogova, O. & Golovatskaya, E. (2023). Impact of temperature and moisture on the decomposition of peat-forming plants: Results of a two-year incubation experiment. Forests, 14: 2355. DOI: 10.3390/f14122355 .
Norden, B., Fyfe, C.A. & McKinnon, M.S. (1986). 13CCP/MAS NMR study of peat in the solid state. International Peat Journal, 1: 153–164.
Nurulita, Y., Adetutu, E.M., Kadali, K.K., Zul, D., Mansur, A.A. & Ball, A.S. (2015). The assessment of the impact of oil palm and rubber plantations on the biotic and abiotic properties of tropical peat swamp soil in Indonesia. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 13: 150–166. DOI: 10.1080/14735903.2014.986321.
Othman, H., Mohammed, A.T., Darus, F.M., Harun, M.H. & Zambri, M.P. (2011). Best management practices for oil palm cultivation on peat: Ground water-table maintenance in relation to peat subsidence and estimation of CO2 emissions at Sessang, Sarawak. Journal of Oil Palm Research, 23: 1078–1086.
Philben, M., Sutler, S., Billings, S. A., Benner, R., Edwards, K. A. & Ziegler, S. E. (2015). Biochemical and structural controls on the decomposition dynamics of boreal upland forest moss tissues. Biogeosciences, 15 (21): 6731–6746. DOI: 10.5194/bg-15-6731-2018.
Purwanto, B.H., Kakuda, K., Ho, A., Jong, F.S., Yamamoto, Y., Watanabe, A. & Yoshida, T. (2002). Nutrient availability and response of sago palm (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.) to controlled release N fertilizer on coastal lowland peat in the tropics. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 48 (4): 529–537. DOI: 10.1080/00380768.2002.104092 35.
Putra, F.N., Soermano, S. & Suntari, R. (2016). Humification degree and its relationship with some soil physical characteristics on robusta coffee (Coffea canephora) plantation. Journal of Degraded and Mining Lands Management, 3 (4): 649–658. DOI:10. 15243/jdmlm.2016.034.649.
Rauf, A., Harahap, F.S. & Rahmawaty. (2019). Evaluation of peat soil properties for oil palm plantation in nine years of plant at Kubu Raya District, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. The 8th International Symposium for Sustainable Humanosphere, IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 374. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/374/1/012040.
Regina, K., Nykänen, H., Silvola, J. & Martikainen, P.J. (1996). Fluxes of nitrous oxide from boreal peatlands as affected by peatland type, water table level and nitrification capacity. Biogeochemistry, 35: 401–418. DOI: 10.1007/BF02183033.
Satrio, A.E., Gandaseca, S., Ahmed, O.H. & Majid, N.M.A. (2009). Effect of logging operation on soil carbon storage of a tropical peat swamp forest. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 5 (6): 748–752. DOI: 10.3844/ajessp.20 09.748.752.
Silver, W.L., Thompson, A.W., Reich, A., Ewel, J.J. & Firestone, M.K. (2005). Nitrogen cycling in tropical plantation forests: Potential controls on nitrogen retention. Ecological Applications, 15 (5): 1604–1614. DOI:10.1890/04-1322.
Sim, S.F. & Mohamed, M. (2007). Chemical characterization of humic substances occurring in the peats of Sarawak, Malaysia. Organic Geochemistry, 38 (6): 967–976. DOI: 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2006.12.010.
Sim, S.F. & Ting, W. (2012). An automated approach for analysis of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra of edible oils. Talanta, 88: 537–543. DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2011.11.030.
Sim, S.F., Wasli, M.E., Yong, C.M.R., Howell, P.S., Jumin, C., Safie, N.A. & Samling, B. (2017). Assessment of the humification degree of peat soil under sago (Metroxylon sagu) cultivation based on Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) and Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopic characteristics. Mires and Peat, 19 (24): 1–10. DOI: 10.19189/MaP.2017.OMB.296.
Sim, S.F., Jumin, C. & Kho, L.K. (2019). Mapping the characteristics of tropical forest peat and cultivated peat under oil palm plantation in Sarawak, Borneo. Journal of Oil Palm Research, 31 (3): 459–467. DOI: 10.21894/jopr.2019.000 39.
Stevenson, F. J. (1982). Organic forms of soil nitrogen. In F. J. Stevenson (Ed.), Nitrogen in agricultural soils (pp. 67-122). American Society of Agronomy, Crop Science Society of America, Soil Science Society of America. DOI: 10.2134/agronmonogr22.c3.
Szajdak, L.W., Jezierski, A., Wegner, K., Meysner, T. & Szczepański, M. (2020). Influence of drainage on peat organic matter: Implications for development, stability and transformation. Molecules, 25: 1–27. DOI: 10.3390/molecules25112587.
Tohiruddin, L., Prabowo, N.E. & Foster, H.L. (2006). Comparison of the response of oil palm to fertilisers at different locations in North and South Sumatra. In International Oil Palm Conference (IOPC), 19-23 June 2006, Nusa Dua, Bali, Indonesia. pp. 188-200.
Trevisan, S., Verbeke, F.O., Quaggiotti, S. & Nardi, S. (2010). Humic substances biological activity at the plant-soil interface. Plant Signaling & Behaviour, 5 (6): 635–643. DOI: 10.4161%2Fpsb.5.6.11211.
Veloo, R., van Ranst, E. & Selliah, P. (2015). Peat characteristics and its impact on oil palm yield. NJAS – Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 7273, 33–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.njas.2014.11.001.
Verbeke, B.A., Lamit, L.J., Lilleskov E.A., Hodgkins S.B., Basiliko, N., Kane, E.S., Andersen, R., Artz, R.R.E., Benavides, J.C., Benscoter, B.W., Borken W., Bragazza, L, Brandt, S.M., Bräuer, S.L., Carson, M.A., Charman, D., Chen, X., Clarkson B.R. Cobb, A.R. & Chanton, J.P. (2021). Latitude, elevation, and mean annual temperature predict peat organic matter chemistry at a global scale. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 36 (2). DOI: 10. 1029/2021GB007057.
von Post, L. (1924). Das genetische System der organogenen Bildungen Schwedens (The genetic system of the organogenic formations of Sweden). In: Comité International de Pédologie, IVème commission (commission pour la nomenclature et la classification des sols, commission pour l'Europe, président: B. Frosterus, ed.), Mémoires sur la Nomenclature et la Classification des Sols (Memoirs on the Nomenclature and Classification of Soils), Helsingfors/Helsinki. pp. 287–304 (in German).
Waksman, S. A. (1938). Humus: origin, chemical composition, and importance in nature. William & Wilkins.
Wang, X.W., Xu, J.C., Long, C.Z., Shu, W., Lu, M.J. & Yang, W.T. (2018) Effect of nitrogen rates and soil water contents on soil nitrogen mineralization under ryegrass returning into red soil. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Fertilizers, 24 (2): 365–374. DOI: 10.11674/zwyf.17373.
Woittiez, L.S., van Wijk, M.T., Slingerland, M., van Noordwijk, M. & Giller, K.E. (2017). Yield gaps in oil palms: A quantitative review of contributing factors. European Journal of Agronomy, 83: 57–77. DOI: 10.1016/j.eja.2016.11.002.
Yang, F., Tang, C. & Antonietti, M. (2021). Natural and artificial humic substances to manage minerals, ions, water, and soil microorganisms. Chemical Society Reviews, 50: 6221–6339. DOI: 10.1039/D0CS01363C.
Zaccone, C., Miano, T.M. & Shotyk, W. (2007). Qualitative comparison between raw peat and related humic acids in an ombrotrophic bog profile. Organic Geochemistry, 38: 151–160. DOI: 10.1016/j.orggeochem.2006.06.023.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Borneo Journal of Resource Science and Technology
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Copyright Transfer Statement for Journal
1) In signing this statement, the author(s) grant UNIMAS Publisher an exclusive license to publish their original research papers. The author(s) also grant UNIMAS Publisher permission to reproduce, recreate, translate, extract or summarize, and to distribute and display in any forms, formats, and media. The author(s) can reuse their papers in their future printed work without first requiring permission from UNIMAS Publisher, provided that the author(s) acknowledge and reference publication in the Journal.
2) For open access articles, the author(s) agree that their articles published under UNIMAS Publisher are distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-SA (Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 4.0 International License) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, for non-commercial purposes, provided the original work of the author(s) is properly cited.
3) For subscription articles, the author(s) agree that UNIMAS Publisher holds copyright, or an exclusive license to publish. Readers or users may view, download, print, and copy the content, for academic purposes, subject to the following conditions of use: (a) any reuse of materials is subject to permission from UNIMAS Publisher; (b) archived materials may only be used for academic research; (c) archived materials may not be used for commercial purposes, which include but not limited to monetary compensation by means of sale, resale, license, transfer of copyright, loan, etc.; and (d) archived materials may not be re-published in any part, either in print or online.
4) The author(s) is/are responsible to ensure his or her or their submitted work is original and does not infringe any existing copyright, trademark, patent, statutory right, or propriety right of others. Corresponding author(s) has (have) obtained permission from all co-authors prior to submission to the journal. Upon submission of the manuscript, the author(s) agree that no similar work has been or will be submitted or published elsewhere in any language. If submitted manuscript includes materials from others, the authors have obtained the permission from the copyright owners.
5) In signing this statement, the author(s) declare(s) that the researches in which they have conducted are in compliance with the current laws of the respective country and UNIMAS Journal Publication Ethics Policy. Any experimentation or research involving human or the use of animal samples must obtain approval from Human or Animal Ethics Committee in their respective institutions. The author(s) agree and understand that UNIMAS Publisher is not responsible for any compensational claims or failure caused by the author(s) in fulfilling the above-mentioned requirements. The author(s) must accept the responsibility for releasing their materials upon request by Chief Editor or UNIMAS Publisher.
6) The author(s) should have participated sufficiently in the work and ensured the appropriateness of the content of the article. The author(s) should also agree that he or she has no commercial attachments (e.g. patent or license arrangement, equity interest, consultancies, etc.) that might pose any conflict of interest with the submitted manuscript. The author(s) also agree to make any relevant materials and data available upon request by the editor or UNIMAS Publisher.
